SentenceTransformer

This is a sentence-transformers model trained. It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 384-dimensional dense vector space and can be used for semantic textual similarity, semantic search, paraphrase mining, text classification, clustering, and more.

Model Details

Model Description

• Model Type: Sentence Transformer

• Maximum Sequence Length: 256 tokens
• Output Dimensionality: 384 dimensions
• Similarity Function: Cosine Similarity

Model Sources

• Documentation: Sentence Transformers Documentation
• Repository: Sentence Transformers on GitHub
• Hugging Face: Sentence Transformers on Hugging Face

Full Model Architecture

SentenceTransformer(
  (0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 256, 'do_lower_case': False, 'architecture': 'BertModel'})
  (1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 384, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': True, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
  (2): Normalize()
)

Usage

Direct Usage (Sentence Transformers)

First install the Sentence Transformers library:

pip install -U sentence-transformers

Then you can load this model and run inference.

from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer

# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SentenceTransformer("sentence_transformers_model_id")
# Run inference
sentences = [
    'Can you explain why this might have been so?',
    'See  http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~ikarpov/Classes/RL/RandomWalk/  for an attempt at a thorough answer by Igor Karpov.',
    'We describe methods to choose the initial weights Ω k and biases β k so that training is stable.',
]
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings.shape)
# [3, 384]

# Get the similarity scores for the embeddings
similarities = model.similarity(embeddings, embeddings)
print(similarities)
# tensor([[1.0000, 0.3878, 0.2539],
#         [0.3878, 1.0000, 0.2993],
#         [0.2539, 0.2993, 1.0000]])

Evaluation

Metrics

Semantic Similarity

• Dataset: val
• Evaluated with EmbeddingSimilarityEvaluator

Training Details

Training Dataset

Training Data

The model was fine-tuned using 17 reference books in Data Science and Machine Learning, including: All source books were preprocessed using GROBID, an open-source tool for extracting and structuring text from PDF documents.
The raw PDF files were converted into structured text, segmented into sentences, and cleaned before being used for training.
This ensured consistent formatting and reliable sentence boundaries across the dataset.

1. Aßenmacher, Matthias. Multimodal Deep Learning. Self-published, 2023.
2. Bertsekas, Dimitri P. A Course in Reinforcement Learning. Arizona State University.
3. Boykis, Vicki. What are Embeddings. Self-published, 2023.
4. Bruce, Peter, and Andrew Bruce. Practical Statistics for Data Scientists: 50 Essential Concepts. O’Reilly Media, 2017.
5. Daumé III, Hal. A Course in Machine Learning. Self-published.
6. Deisenroth, Marc Peter, A. Aldo Faisal, and Cheng Soon Ong. Mathematics for Machine Learning. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
7. Devlin, Hannah, Guo Kunin, Xiang Tian. Seeing Theory. Self-published.
8. Gutmann, Michael U. Pen & Paper: Exercises in Machine Learning. Self-published.
9. Jung, Alexander. Machine Learning: The Basics. Springer, 2022.
10. Langr, Jakub, and Vladimir Bok. Deep Learning with Generative Adversarial Networks. Manning Publications, 2019.
11. MacKay, David J.C. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
12. Montgomery, Douglas C., Cheryl L. Jennings, and Murat Kulahci. Introduction to Time Series Analysis and Forecasting. 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2015.
13. Nilsson, Nils J. Introduction to Machine Learning: An Early Draft of a Proposed Textbook. Stanford University, 1996.
14. Prince, Simon J.D. Understanding Deep Learning. Draft Edition, 2024.
15. Shashua, Amnon. Introduction to Machine Learning. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2008.
16. Sutton, Richard S., and Andrew G. Barto. Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction. 2nd Edition, MIT Press, 2018.
17. Alpaydin, Ethem. Introduction to Machine Learning. 3rd Edition, MIT Press, 2014.

⚠️ Note: Due to copyright restrictions, the full text of these books is not included in this repository. Only the fine-tuned model weights are shared.

Unnamed Dataset

• Size: 167,112 training samples
• Columns: sentence_0 and sentence_1
• Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:

  	sentence_0	sentence_1
  type	string	string
  details	min: 7 tokens mean: 31.92 tokens max: 256 tokens	min: 7 tokens mean: 33.66 tokens max: 256 tokens

• Samples:

  sentence_0	sentence_1
  On the other hand, squared loss thinks it's just as bad to predict +3 on a positive example as it is to predict -1 on a positive example.	If you replace to zero/one loss with a surrogate loss, you obtain the following objective: The question is: what should R(w, b) look like?
  Why does the update step set the 'mean' to the mean of the assigned points?	Where did the distance d come from?
  We start with a training set {x i } of real 1D examples.	A different batch of ten of these examples {x i } 10 i=1 is shown in each panel (cyan arrows).

• Loss: MultipleNegativesRankingLoss with these parameters:

  {
      "scale": 20.0,
      "similarity_fct": "cos_sim",
      "gather_across_devices": false
  }
  

Training Hyperparameters

Non-Default Hyperparameters

• per_device_train_batch_size: 16
• per_device_eval_batch_size: 16
• num_train_epochs: 15
• multi_dataset_batch_sampler: round_robin

All Hyperparameters

Click to expand

• overwrite_output_dir: False
• do_predict: False
• eval_strategy: no
• prediction_loss_only: True
• per_device_train_batch_size: 16
• per_device_eval_batch_size: 16
• per_gpu_train_batch_size: None
• per_gpu_eval_batch_size: None
• gradient_accumulation_steps: 1
• eval_accumulation_steps: None
• torch_empty_cache_steps: None
• learning_rate: 5e-05
• weight_decay: 0.0
• adam_beta1: 0.9
• adam_beta2: 0.999
• adam_epsilon: 1e-08
• max_grad_norm: 1
• num_train_epochs: 15
• max_steps: -1
• lr_scheduler_type: linear
• lr_scheduler_kwargs: {}
• warmup_ratio: 0.0
• warmup_steps: 0
• log_level: passive
• log_level_replica: warning
• log_on_each_node: True
• logging_nan_inf_filter: True
• save_safetensors: True
• save_on_each_node: False
• save_only_model: False
• restore_callback_states_from_checkpoint: False
• no_cuda: False
• use_cpu: False
• use_mps_device: False
• seed: 42
• data_seed: None
• jit_mode_eval: False
• bf16: False
• fp16: False
• fp16_opt_level: O1
• half_precision_backend: auto
• bf16_full_eval: False
• fp16_full_eval: False
• tf32: None
• local_rank: 0
• ddp_backend: None
• tpu_num_cores: None
• tpu_metrics_debug: False
• debug: []
• dataloader_drop_last: False
• dataloader_num_workers: 0
• dataloader_prefetch_factor: None
• past_index: -1
• disable_tqdm: False
• remove_unused_columns: True
• label_names: None
• load_best_model_at_end: False
• ignore_data_skip: False
• fsdp: []
• fsdp_min_num_params: 0
• fsdp_config: {'min_num_params': 0, 'xla': False, 'xla_fsdp_v2': False, 'xla_fsdp_grad_ckpt': False}
• fsdp_transformer_layer_cls_to_wrap: None
• accelerator_config: {'split_batches': False, 'dispatch_batches': None, 'even_batches': True, 'use_seedable_sampler': True, 'non_blocking': False, 'gradient_accumulation_kwargs': None}
• parallelism_config: None
• deepspeed: None
• label_smoothing_factor: 0.0
• optim: adamw_torch
• optim_args: None
• adafactor: False
• group_by_length: False
• length_column_name: length
• project: huggingface
• trackio_space_id: trackio
• ddp_find_unused_parameters: None
• ddp_bucket_cap_mb: None
• ddp_broadcast_buffers: False
• dataloader_pin_memory: True
• dataloader_persistent_workers: False
• skip_memory_metrics: True
• use_legacy_prediction_loop: False
• push_to_hub: False
• resume_from_checkpoint: None
• hub_model_id: None
• hub_strategy: every_save
• hub_private_repo: None
• hub_always_push: False
• hub_revision: None
• gradient_checkpointing: False
• gradient_checkpointing_kwargs: None
• include_inputs_for_metrics: False
• include_for_metrics: []
• eval_do_concat_batches: True
• fp16_backend: auto
• push_to_hub_model_id: None
• push_to_hub_organization: None
• mp_parameters:
• auto_find_batch_size: False
• full_determinism: False
• torchdynamo: None
• ray_scope: last
• ddp_timeout: 1800
• torch_compile: False
• torch_compile_backend: None
• torch_compile_mode: None
• include_tokens_per_second: False
• include_num_input_tokens_seen: no
• neftune_noise_alpha: None
• optim_target_modules: None
• batch_eval_metrics: False
• eval_on_start: False
• use_liger_kernel: False
• liger_kernel_config: None
• eval_use_gather_object: False
• average_tokens_across_devices: True
• prompts: None
• batch_sampler: batch_sampler
• multi_dataset_batch_sampler: round_robin
• router_mapping: {}
• learning_rate_mapping: {}

Training Logs

Framework Versions

• Python: 3.11.7
• Sentence Transformers: 5.1.1
• Transformers: 4.57.0
• PyTorch: 2.5.1+cu121
• Accelerate: 1.10.1
• Datasets: 4.2.0
• Tokenizers: 0.22.1

License

• Base model: Apache 2.0
• Fine-tuned model: distributed under Apache 2.0
• Training data: proprietary, not redistributed

Citation

BibTeX

Sentence Transformers

@inproceedings{reimers-2019-sentence-bert,
    title = "Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks",
    author = "Reimers, Nils and Gurevych, Iryna",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",
    month = "11",
    year = "2019",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.10084",
}

MultipleNegativesRankingLoss

@misc{henderson2017efficient,
    title={Efficient Natural Language Response Suggestion for Smart Reply},
    author={Matthew Henderson and Rami Al-Rfou and Brian Strope and Yun-hsuan Sung and Laszlo Lukacs and Ruiqi Guo and Sanjiv Kumar and Balint Miklos and Ray Kurzweil},
    year={2017},
    eprint={1705.00652},
    archivePrefix={arXiv},
    primaryClass={cs.CL}
}

If you use this model, please cite:

@misc{aghakhani2025synergsticrag,
  author       = {Danial Aghakhani Zadeh},
  title        = {Fine-tuned all-MiniLM-L6-v2 for Data Science RAG},
  year         = {2025},
  publisher    = {Hugging Face},
  howpublished = {\url{https://huggingface.co/DigitalAsocial/all-MiniLM-L6-v2-ds-rag}}
}